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Acronym Definition
LJOD Local Jack of Diamonds (hearts game where the jack is a bonus)
LJOD Local Joint Occupancy Date
LJOD Local Jordanian Dinar
LJOD Local Journal Of Development
LJOD Local Junior Officer of the Day
LJOD Local Juvenile-Onset Diabetes
Pronunciation
IPA: [ljɔuː]
Etymology 1
From Old Norse hljóđ.
Noun
ljóđ n.
1. sound
Related terms
* ljóđa (to sound)
Declension
n4 Singular Plural
Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite
Nominative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđini
Accusative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđini
Dative ljóđ(i) ljóđnum ljóđum ljóđunum
Genitive ljóđs ljóđsins ljóđa ljóđanna
Etymology 2
From Old Norse ljóđ.
Noun
ljóđ n.
1. (archaic) poem
Declension
n4 Singular Plural
Indefinite Definite Indefinite Definite
Nominative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđini
Accusative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđini
Dative ljóđ(i) ljóđnum ljóđum ljóđunum
Genitive ljóđs ljóđsins ljóđa ljóđanna
Icelandic
Declension of ljóđ
(singular) (plural)
(indefinite) (definite) (indefinite) (definite)
nominative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđin
accusative ljóđ ljóđiđ ljóđ ljóđin
dative ljóđi ljóđinu ljóđum ljóđunum
genitive ljóđs ljóđsins ljóđa ljóđanna
Other words with the same declension
Etymology
From Old Norse ljóđ.
Noun
ljóđ n.
1. poem
Synonyms
* kvćđi
Derived terms
* nćturljóđ
* ljóđlist
Old Norse
Noun
ljóđ n.
1. poem
Synonyms
* kvćđi
Descendants
* Faroese: ljóđ n
In Norse mythology, Vǫlsung was murdered by the Geatish king Siggeir and avenged
by one of his sons, Sigmund and his daughter Signy who was married to Siggeir.
Vǫlsung was the common ancestor of the ill-fortuned clan of the Vǫlsungs,
including the greatest of Norse heroes, Sigurd. Their legend is known in Norse
myth through the Volsungasaga and the Drap Niflungs and in Old German through
the Nibelungenlied.
Ironically, in Beowulf, when the Geatish warrior Beowulf has killed Grendel, a
Danish bard at Hrothgar's court sings about Sigmund and his father Waels.
Synopsis
Völsung was the great-grandson of Odin himself, and it was Odin who made sure
that Völsung would be born. Völsung's parents, who were the king and queen of
Hunaland could not have any children until Odin and his consort Frigg sent them
a giantess named Ljod carrying the apple of fertility. Völsung's father died
shortly after this, but his wife was pregnant for six years, until she had had
enough. She commanded that the child be delivered by caesarian, an operation
that in those days cost the life of the mother. Völsung was a strong child and
he kissed his mother before she died.
He was immediately proclaimed king of Hunaland and when he had grown up he
married the giantess Ljod. First they had twins, the girl Signy and her twin
brother named Sigmund then nine more sons.
Völsung built himself a great hall in the centre of which stood a large apple
tree. Siggeir, the King of the Geats, soon arrived and proposed to Signy. Both
Völsung and his sons approved, but Signy was less enthusiastic.
A great wedding was held in the hall, when suddenly a stranger appeared. He was
a tall old man with only one eye and could not be anybody else but Odin. He went
to the apple tree, took his sword and stuck it deep into the trunk. Odin told
everyone that the sword was meant for the man who could pull the sword from the
apple tree. Then he vanished.
Everyone at the wedding tried to pull the sword but only Sigmund succeeded, and
he did so effortlessly. The sword was named Gram and it proved to be an
excellent weapon. Siggeir, his brother-in-law, offered thrice its weight in gold
for the sword, but Sigmund scornfully said no. This greatly angered Siggeir, who
returned home the next day.
Three months later, Völsung and his sons were invited to banquet with Siggeir.
They were met by Signy, who warned them that Siggeir intended to ambush them.
They refused to turn back whereupon Signy cried and implored them to go home.
Soon they were attacked by the Geats, Völsung fell and his ten sons were taken
captive.
For the continued story, see Sigmund.
In Norse mythology, Sigmund is a hero whose story is told in Volsunga saga. He
and his sister, Signy, are the children of Volsung and his wife Ljod. Sigmund is
best known as the father of Sigurd the dragon-slayer, though Sigurd's tale has
almost no connections to the Volsung tales.
Volsung Saga
In the Volsung Saga, Signy marries Siggeir, the king of Gautland (modern
Västergötland). Volsung and Sigmund are attending the wedding feast (which
lasted for some time before and after the marriage), when Odin, in the guise of
a beggar, plunges a sword into the living tree around which Volsung's hall is
built. The disguised Odin announces that the man who can remove the sword will
have it as a gift. Only Sigmund is able to free the sword.
Siggeir is smitten with envy and desire for the sword. Siggeir invites Sigmund,
his father Völsung and Sigmund's nine brothers to a visit in Gautland to see the
newlyweds three months later. When the Völsung clan arrive they are attacked by
the Gauts; king Völsung is killed and his sons captured. Signy beseeches her
husband to spare her brothers and to put them in stocks instead of killing them.
As Siggeir thinks that the brothers deserve to be tortured before they are
killed, he agrees.
He then lets his shape-shifting mother turn into a wolf and devour one of the
brothers each night , until only Sigmund remains. Signy has a servant smear
honey on Sigmund's face and when the she-wolf arrives she starts licking the
honey off Sigmund's face. She licks and sticks her tongue into Sigmund's mouth
whereupon Sigmund bites her tongue off, killing her. Sigmund then hides in the
forests of Gautland and Signy brings him everything he needs.
Sigmund escapes his bonds and lives underground in the wilderness on Siggeir's
lands. While he is in hiding, Signy comes to him in the guise of a Völva
(sorceress) and conceives a child by him, Sinfjötli (the Fitela of Beowulf).
Bent on revenge for their father's death, Signy sends her sons to Sigmund in the
wilderness, one by one, to be tested. As each fails, Signy urges Sigmund to kill
them. Finally, Sinfjötli (born of the incest between Signy and Sigmund) passes
the test.
Sigmund and his son/nephew, Sinfjötli, grow wealthy as outlaws. In their
wanderings, they come upon men sleeping in cursed wolf skins. Upon killing the
men and wearing the wolf skins, Sigmund and Sinfjötli are cursed to a type of
lycanthropy. Eventually, Sinfjötli and Sigmund avenge the death of Volsung.
After the death of Signy, Sigmund and Sinfjötli go harrying together. Sigmund
marries a woman named Borghild and has two sons, one of them named Helgi. Helgi
and Sinfjötli rule a kingdom jointly. Helgi marries a woman named Sigrun after
killing her father. Sinfjötli later killes Sigrun's brother in battle and Sigrun
avenges her brother by poisoning Sinfjötli.
Later, Sigmund marries a woman named Hjördís. After a short time of peace,
Sigmund's lands are attacked by King Lyngi. While in battle, Sigmund matches up
against an old man (Odin in disguise). Odin shatters Sigmund's sword, and
Sigmund falls at the hands of others. Dying, Sigmund tells Hjördís that she is
pregnant and that her son will one day make a great weapon out of the fragments
of his sword. That son was Sigurd. Sigurd himself had a son named Sigmund who
was killed when he was three years old by a vengeful Brynhild.
Basis
Sigmund's story may be based on older material than that found in the Sigurd
story and it is more directly involved in matters of family descent and the
conquest of lands. If there is a historical person behind the Sigmund stories,
it is probably a chieftain from the time of the first great Germanic migration
in the second and third centuries CE.
Relation to other Germanic heroes
Sigmund/Siegmund is also the name of Sigurd/Siegfried's father in other versions
of the Sigurd story but without any of the details about his life or family that
appear in Norse Volsung tales and poems. On the other hand, the Old English poem
Beowulf includes "Sigemund the Wćlsing" and his nephew "Fiteli" in a tale of
dragon slaying told within the main story. Ironically the story of Sigemund is
told to Beowulf, a warrior also from Gautland.
The history of the Icelandic language is rooted in the settlement of Iceland and
was influenced by Norwegian and Old Norse. Icelandic is an insular Scandinavian
language brought over from Norway when Iceland was first settled, and has
steadily developed and evolved away from a dialect of Norwegian into its own
unique language.
The oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100. The majority
of these texts are poems or laws, preserved orally for generations before being
written down. The most famous of these, written in Iceland from the 12th century
onward, are without doubt the Icelandic Sagas, the historical writings of Snorri
Sturluson; and eddaic poems.
The language of the era of the sagas is called Old Icelandic, a western dialect
of Old Norse, the common Scandinavian language of the Viking era. Old Icelandic
was, in the strict sense of the term, Old Norse with some Celtic influence. The
Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 has had little effect on the evolution
of Icelandic, which remained in daily use among the general population and
Danish was not used for official communications. The same applied for the
American occupation of Iceland during World War II and was gradually withdrawn
in the 1950s.
Though Icelandic is considered more archaic than other living Germanic
languages, important changes have occurred. The pronunciation, for instance,
changed considerably from the 12th to the 16th century, especially of vowels.
Written Icelandic has, thus, changed relatively little since the 13th century.
As a result of this, and of the similarity between the modern and ancient
grammar, modern speakers can still understand, more or less, the original sagas
and Eddas that were written some eight hundred years ago. This ability is
sometimes mildly overstated by Icelanders themselves, most of whom actually read
the Sagas with updated modern spelling and footnotes—though otherwise intact.
The language of the Norwegian settlers
Most of the original settlers of Iceland came from Western Norway. Icelandic is
therefore an ‘imported’ language, or to put it more precisely, a dialect of
Norwegian. Old Norwegian thus became rooted in a land which was previously
almost entirely uninhabited, and due to its geographic isolation and consequent
lack of influence from other substrate or adstrate languages, the development of
the language was entirely independent. However, it would be wrong to suggest
that the language that was brought to Iceland was completely homogeneous; even
though most of the settlers were from western Norway, there were a number from
other parts of the country and also from other Scandinavian countries.
Therefore, the language which grew up in Iceland was influenced by all of the
Norwegian dialects of the time. The close intermingling of the people of the
island, especially at the Alţingi (the general meeting which took place at the
beginning of each summer at Ţingvellir) led to the differences between the
various dialects becoming negligible. It united and reinforced the common traits
of the dialects and levelled out the most marked differences. Even though the
exact details of how the language developed in this way may not be known, modern
Icelandic in comparison with other Scandinavian languages shows at least the
results of this type of levelling process. The unique development of Icelandic,
which would eventually result in its complete separation from Norwegian and the
other Scandinavian languages, began with the landnám or first settlement.
Icelandic has lost all trace of the early Scandinavian accent which was musical
in nature like modern Norwegian and, more noticeably, Swedish. Research has been
carried out to identify certain traits of the language, for example the so
called preaspiration, but the results were inconclusive. It is a significant
observation that Icelandic shares such characteristics with two other languages:
Faroese and the Swedish spoken in Finland.
The Scandinavian period (550–1050)
The period from 550 to 1050 was called the Scandinavian or ‘Common Nordic’
period. During this time a notably unified common language was spoken throughout
Scandinavia. The key position of Denmark as the focal point of the whole area
made it common for the language simply to be called ‘Danish’ (dönsk tunga). Even
though the first hints of individual future developments were already
identifiable in different parts of the vast region, there were no problems with
mutual intelligibility. It is important to note here the similarity of the Anglo
Saxon dialects spoken in Great Britain, which at the time of the Dansh conquests
of large portions of the island in the 8th century showed very real penetration,
particularly in the territory known as the Danelaw. Many Anglo Saxons were of
Danish origin, for example the famous Canut (from the Danish Knud, still a
common boy’s name in Denmark). The great Anglo Saxon epic Beowulf is in reality
about matters of Danish import and Danes are named from the very beginning (Hwćt!
We Gardena in geardagum / ţeođcyninga ţrym gefrunon “Hark! We have heard the
glorious deeds of the ancient Kings of the Danish people from long spears”).
With regards to the dönsk tunga spoken in Iceland, there are no written
documents from this period. Ancient Scandinavian runes were certainly widely
known but were never used to write on papyrus. They were designed as a sacral
alphabet adapted to being engraved into stone, metal or wood. In Iceland few
runic inscriptions have been found and nearly all are dated after 1200.
Ancient Scandinavian or Norse (1050–1350)
See also: Old Norse
The period from 1050 to 1350 was known as Old Scandinavian, Old Nordic or Norse.
There are numerous manuscripts and documents dating from this period which allow
researchers to place Icelandic from this period accurately. All of the documents
use the Latin alphabet, which was introduced to Iceland in the 12th century.
Laws were transcribed onto papyrus for the first time from 1117 to 1118. The
first manuscripts amongst those still in our possession date back to the second
half of the 12th century. Around 1130–1140, the First Grammatical Treatise (Fyrsta
Málfrćđibók) was composed, a highly original description of the language unique
in Europe at the time. The treaty is concerned with the sounds of the language;
it described the internal workings of the phonological system in a way not
dissimilar to modern linguistic methodology. The manuscript, today kept in
Reykjavík at the Handritastofnun Íslands (“Institute of Icelandic Manuscripts”)
is a later copy of the original text. Three other grammatical treaties were
composed in the following decades.
Although the oldest manuscripts date back to around 1150, they show structures
which were in use from around 900. This is particularly true of the ancient epic
poetry which, due to its metric structure and oral tradition, conserved forms
which are notably archaic. Between 1050 and 1350 Icelandic began to develop
independently from other Scandinavian and Germanic languages; it is particularly
conservative in its inflectional morphology and notably homogeneous across the
country. From the manuscripts it has not been possible to determine whether
dialects ever existed in Iceland; all indications suggest that from the outset
the language has maintained an extraordinary level of homogenity.
In around 1300, the Danish language saw a very rapid evolution in both its
phonology and its morphology. Given that mutations are usually only recorded
later in the written language, it is probable that in spoken Danish these
changes really occurred around 1250 and perhaps even earlier. The rapid
evolution of Danish (a process of simplification comparable to that seen between
Old English and Middle English) gave rise to a marked difference between the
north and south of Scandinavia. In 1350 Danish assumed characteristics that are
still seen in the language today.
Norwegian and Swedish developed more slowly, but show equally notable
differences with Icelandic, which is always more conservative and has maintained
even to this day many common Scandinavian features. In Norwegian a kind of
‘vocalic harmony’ developed, for which a morpheme attached to a word with a
radical high vowel ([i], [u]) showed only a high vowel (systir "sister", cfr.
Icelandic systir), whilst a morpheme attached with radical open vowel ([e], [o])
showed only a low vowel (broţer "brother" cfr. Icelandic bróđir). Such
innovation was only accepted in eastern Norwegian and in Swedish (Mod.
Norwegian, Swedish bro[de]r), while in Icelandic there is no trace of it. With
regards to consonants, Continental Scandinavian languages and most other
Germanic languages lost the series of fricatives ţ, đ, with were retained only
in Icelandic and English (which shows here a phonological trait which is notably
archaic). They were substituted by corresponding dentals [t], [d] (cfr.
Norweigan, Swedish tung "heavy" smed "smith", whilst Icelandic ţungr, smiđr
(modern Icelandic ţungur, smiđur); note however that modern Danish has
reintroduced the sonorant fricative [đ] which was formed by language contact.
Icelandic is the only Germanic language to have conserved the word-initial
consonant groups <hl, hr, hn>, at least from a graphic point of view (their
pronunciation is in part modified by the desonoration of the second consonantal
element), cfr. Icelandic hljót, hrafn, hneta, English loud, raven, nut, Swedish
ljod, nöt, German Laut, Rabe, Nuß. Again along with English, Icelandic is
unusual amongst Germanic languages to have conserved, if only at a local level,
the pronunciation [xw] of the word-initial consonantal cluster <hv>: cfr.
Icelandic hvađ, hvalur [xwa:đ, 'xwa:l’ür, more commonly [khvađ, 'khva:l’ür]
English what, whale [hwɔt, hweil]; the other Germanic languages have
consonantized the cluster cfr. German was, Wal-fisch [v-], Dutch wat, wal-vis,
Swedish vad, val[fisk]. It is interesting to note that until the early years of
this century Swedish has maintained the grapheme hvad, hvalfisk which is purely
historical. In Danish one writes and pronounces [hv-] : hvad, hval-fisk [hvć:đ,
'hvćlfisg], while in Nynorsk, in some cases, one writes and pronounces [kv-] (kva),
exactly as happens commonly in modern Icelandic (southern and literary). There
are also indications that <h> was originally pronounced [x].
Middle Icelandic (1350–1550)
In the period from 1350 to 1550, corresponding to the total loss of independence
and Danish rule, the difference between Norwegian and Icelandic grew even
larger. Norway also fell to the Danish Crown, and Danish became the official
language, which led to the formation of a hybrid Dano-Norwegian language, the
basis of the modern Bokmĺl (successfully "re-Norwegianized" only the twentieth
century). Only in western Norway (whence came the original settlers of Iceland)
were the dialects kept relatively pure and free from Danish influence, so much
so that in the second half of the 19th century the linguist Ivar Aasen created
an authentic Norwegian idiom on the basis of them, first called landsmĺl
‘national language’ and the second nynorsk or ‘neo-Norwegian’, which obtained
immediate recognition as an official language of the state and it now used all
over, particularly in the area of Bergen. All the continental Scandinavian
languages evolved in this period from more synthetic to more analytic languages
and with the Reformation begin to assume a modern character. However, Icelandic
in this period shows a dichotomy. On the one hand it retained, practically
unaltered, its rich inflectional morphology; on the other it underwent a
phonological reorganization comparable in its scope to that which happened in
the development from Middle English to Modern English. To cite only the most
important phenomena:
* In the vowel system a process of diphthongization of the long vowels took
place [á, é, ó], and a differentiation in the timbre of [í, ú]. The glides [y,
ý] (resulting from [u, ú] by metaphony from "i") lost their labial component and
became confused with [i, í] (with the same difference of timbre), while open
back vowel [ć] (a result of metaphony from "i") was diphthongized to [ai]. New
diphthongs were formed, often under the influence of preceding or following
consonantal phoneme and, in general, the pronunciation of short vowels became
less tense to the extent that they now very lax. A extremely important vocalic
phenomenon, also from a morphological standpoint, was the disappearance of
sonorants in word-final positions with the formation of a phoneme svarabhakti
[ü], written as [u]: cfr. Old Icelandic akr, gestr, merkr, ţú gefr > Modern
Icelandic ak-u-r, gest-u-r, merk-u-r, ţú gef-u-r. Icelandic also differs from a
graphic point of view: metaphonetic graphemes [ř] and [o] disappeared
(substituted, according to some phonetic studies, by [ć], [ö], cfr. Old
Icelandic břkr, londom > Modern Icelandic bćkur, löndum). The graphic vowel [o]
in many morphemes (probably already pronounced [u] in the early period) changed
to become written as [u]: londom, vér gefom, ţeir ero > löndum, viđ gefum, ţeir
eru. However, the pronunciation of atonic vowels remained very clear (at odds
with what happened in the other Scandinavian and Germanic languages), a factor
which played an important role in the conservation of some forms.
* The consonant system underwent even more profound transformations. Phenomena
such as palatalization appeared through contact, with the resulting formation of
consonant phonemes which were most likely absent in the early epoch. The most
obvious upset is in the formation of desonorated consonants: unvoiced consonants
became aspirated, while the sonorants lost their vibration whilst retaining
their articulation (without doubt it is the consonant system of modern Icelandic
which gives the greatest difficulty to foreign speakers). Another very notable
phenomenon is that of the so-called preaspiration, where certain consonant
clusters are preceded by a complete closure of the vocal cords followed a light
aspiration. Other consonant clusters developed a desonorated dental element.
Neither phenomenon is written, which reflects the fact that they are still in a
very early stage of linguistic evolution (but this is a common phenomenon in
many languages of cultures like English, French and Danish. Morphophonetic
phenomena have also developed, some of them denoted by the graphemes (gef ţú >
gefđu etc.)
The phonetic ‘earthquake’ which Icelandic underwent did not however change some
very ancient and fundamental characteristics, like the conservation of
word-final atonic vowels [i, u, a], elsewhere reduced to an indistinct schwa
[ə]; as stated, this is probably the principal cause of the morphological
conservation.
Modern Icelandic
Around 1550, with the Lutheran Reformation, the introduction of printing and the
consequent translation of the Bible, modern Icelandic was definitively formed.
With respect to other Scandinavian and Germanic languages (with the partial
exception of Faroese and German), Icelandic certainly remained at an earlier
evolutionary stage in terms of its morphology, but this should not imply that
the language did not change; the phonological developments of the language from
the ancient to the modern language are enormous. A conservative writing system,
rich inflectional morphology and a lexicon which is resistant to neologisms
obscures the true nature of modern Icelandic, which is a modern language like
any other; Russian, Polish and Hungarian, just as examples, have a morphological
system at least as complex at that of Icelandic, and Hungarian, moreover,
behaves exactly like Icelandic in terms its acceptance of most neologisms. As is
often said of Icelandic people, they have no difficulty in reading works of
Medieval literature, whilst to speak to their ancestors they would probably need
an interpreter. The most consistent changes have been to the vowel system which
followed the segmental phonological quantity in the 16th century, or perhaps
already in the 14th century and the consequent development of diphthongs. In the
consonant system there have also been notable changes, for example the
desonorization of plosives, the rise of a correlative sonorant for nasals and
liquids and preaspiration.
The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from a standard established in the
19th century, by the Danish linguist Rasmus Rask primarily. It is ultimately
based heavily on an orthographic standard created in the early 12th century by a
mysterious document referred to as The First Grammatical Treatise by an
anonymous author who has later been referred to as the ‘First Grammarian’. The
later Rasmus Rask standard was basically a re-enactment of the old treatise,
with some changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions, such as the exclusive
use of k rather than c. Various old features, like đ, had actually not seen much
use in the later centuries, so Rask’s standard constituted a major change in
practice. Later 20th century changes are most notably the adoption of é, which
had previously been written as je (reflecting the modern pronunciation), and the
abolition of z in 1974.
Linguistic purism
Linguistic purism in Icelandic
During the 18th century, the Icelandic authorities implemented a stringent
policy of linguistic purism. As a result of this policy, some writers and
terminologists were put in charge of the creation of new vocabulary to adapt the
Icelandic language to the evolution of new concepts, and thus not having to
resort to borrowed neologisms like in many other languages. Many old words that
had fallen into misuse were updated to fit in with the modern language, and
neologisms were created from Old Norse roots. For example, the word rafmagn
(‘electricity’), literally means “amber power” from Greek elektron (‘amber’),
similarly the word sími (‘telephone’) originally meant “wire” and tölva
(‘computer’) combines tala (‘digit; number’) and völva (‘magician’).
Foreign influences on Icelandic
Celtic influence
It is not yet clear whether the influence of the Irish Celts did effectively
contribute to the development of Icelandic. However, it is still possible, given
that amongst the first settlers were many Irish slaves (perhaps as much as 30%
of the original population). Moreover, from the earliest settlement these people
continued to speak in Gaelic, and some researchers hold that the ‘seed’ of
certain peculiarities of the phonological development of Icelandic (like
preaspiration and the desonorization of liquids and nasals) is due to the Celtic
influx. However, it is not likely, given that these are proven native
phenomena[citation needed] and it was a period in which no one spoken or heard
Irish[citation needed] and the descendants of these ancient slaves were already
assimilated generations previously[citation needed]. In every case, the
demonstrable Celtic influence can be reduced to a few toponyms (Dímon,
Kalmans-vík, Kolku-ós, Patreks-fjörđur) and some family names such as Kjartan,
Kvaran, Kiljan, Kamban, Melkorka, some of which are still common today.
Toponyms
Even though the vast majority of Icelandic toponyms are native and clearly
interpretable (for example: Ísa-fjörđur ‘ice ford’, Flat-ey ‘flat island’, Gull-foss
‘golden waterfall’, Vatna-jökull ‘water glacier’, Reykja-vík ‘bay of smoke’,
Blanda ‘the mixed (river)’ (which is formed by the confluence of different
rivers), Varm-á ‘hot river’, to name but a few examples), there are some which
up until now have resisted any plausible interpretation, even in the light of
the Celtic languages. For example, Esja (a mountain on Kjalarnes), Ferstikla (a
farm near Hvalfjörđur), Vigur (an island in Ísafjarđardjúp), Ölfus (an area of
Árnessýsla, traversed by the river Hvíta-Ölfusá), Tintron (a volcanic crater in
Lyngdalsheiđi), Kjós (the area which gives its name to Kjósarsýsla), Bóla (a
farm in Skagarfjörđur) and Hekla (the most famous Icelandic volcano). Such
toponyms pose numerous problems, but the main one can be stated in a very simple
question: if they aren’t Icelandic or Celtic, which language do they come from?
Perhaps they have been taken from the language (or languages) of unknown
ethnicity, or perhaps (and this is a fascinating though highly improbably
hypothesis) these name are a sign that Iceland was already inhabited not only
before the landnám, but even preceding the arrival of the first Irish hermits.
But who were these people? Some scholars such as the polygrapher Árni Óla, have
concerned themselves with the question, attempting (without success) to
demonstrate this hypothesis which would force a complete page one rewrite of
Icelandic history. Others have asserted that since Icelandic is an imported
language, such names could in reality be traced back to some unknown substrate
of Norwegian (comparisons have consequently been made with Northern Sami and
other Ugro-Finnic languages), and have therefore been transplanted on the island
by colonies which originated from parts of Norway where such substrate languages
would have still been present. Naturally, there have been numerous attempts to
explain the names with regard to Icelandic: Kjós, for example could come from
the root of the verb kjósa, and therefore mean “the chosen land”. Moreover,
there is also the common Norewegian surname Kjus; Bóla could be simply ból
“dwelling, habitation”, from the root of the verbbúa “abitare”, present in many
names for farms like Ađal-ból “main farm” etc.).
Danish influence
The efforts of the government in Copenhagen to make Danish the official language
of Iceland have left in their wake many Danish terms in official documents, but
they little lasting success. The rural population remained faithful to their own
ancestral language, while Danish borrowings are used only by a restricted class
of ageing educated people who are heavily influenced by Danish culture and live
only in Reykjavík. So when the battle for the purification of Icelandic from all
Danishisms began in the 19th century, the groundwork had already been laid. The
purification campaign was such a success that Danish borrowings were almost
completely eliminated. Only a few terms by now stable in the spoken and
administrative language survive, like ske “happen” (< Danish ske, corresponding
to German ge-schehen), fordćma “pass sentence”, (< Danish fordřmme), the adverbs
kannske (or kannski) and máske “perhaps, maybe” (< Danish kanske, mĺske, lit.
“can happen”) and some nouns like blýantur “pencil, crayon”, fangelsi “prison”
and frímerki “postage stamp” (< Danish blyant, fangelse, frimćrke).
Influences from other languages
Influences from other languages are relatively insignificant. Certainly, many
terms of Latin origin are present in Icelandic, but these date back to the
common Germanic period and are present in all the other Germanic languages, for
example kaupa “to buy” (Danish křbe, German kaufen, Gothic kaupjan < Latin
cauponari), pappír “paper” (German Papier, English paper < Latin papyrus) and
keisari “emperor” (German Kaiser, Swedish kejsare < Latin Cćsar).
Latin borrowings dating back to the introduction of Christianity are for example
kredda “creed, dogma” (< Latin credo) and predika “prophesy, preach” (< Latin
prćdicare; cfr. German predigen); more recently the very common náttúra
“nature”, persóna “person” and partur “part”. With regards to modern languages,
Icelandic is influenced (in recent times quite heavily) only by English,
particularly through technical language and by the younger generation. But at
odds with a language like Italian, where English words are simply borrowed just
as they are, in Icelandic they are adapted to the local phonetic and
morphological system. For example, they have pönkarar and rokkarar (“punk
rocker” and just plain “rocker”) who play á parketi diskótekanna “on the parquet
floor of a nightclub” to the sound of harđrokk “hard rock”.
Poetry (from the Greek "πο?ησι?", poiesis, a "making" or "creating") is a form
of art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in
addition to, or in lieu of, its ostensible meaning. Poetry may be written
independently, as discrete poems, or may occur in conjunction with other arts,
as in poetic drama, hymns or lyrics.
Poetry, and discussions of it, have a long history. Early attempts to define
poetry, such as Aristotle's Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric,
drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on features such as
repetition and rhyme, and emphasised the aesthetics which distinguish poetry
from prose. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more loosely
defined as a fundamental creative act using language.
Poetry often uses particular forms and conventions to expand the literal meaning
of the words, or to evoke emotional or sensual responses. Devices such as
assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve
musical or incantatory effects. Poetry's use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and
other stylistic elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple
interpretations. Similarly, metaphor and simile create a resonance between
otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections
previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between
individual verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm.
Some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding
to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. While readers
accustomed to identifying poetry with Dante, Goethe, Mickiewicz and Rumi may
think of it as being written in rhyming lines and regular meter, there are
traditions, such as those of Du Fu and Beowulf, that use other approaches to
achieve rhythm and euphony. In today's globalized world, poets often borrow
styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages.
History
History of poetry and Literary theory
The Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian, circa 2nd millennium BC.
Poetry as an art form may predate literacy. Many ancient works, from the Vedas
(1700–1200 BC) to the Odyssey (800–675 BC), appear to have been composed in
poetic form to aid memorization and oral transmission, in prehistoric and
ancient societies. Poetry appears among the earliest records of most literate
cultures, with poetic fragments found on early monoliths, rune stones and stelae.
The oldest surviving poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC
in Sumer (in Mesopotamia, now Iraq), which was written in cuneiform script on
clay tablets and, later, papyrus. Other ancient epic poetry includes the Greek
epics, Iliad and Odyssey, and the Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a
form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in "poetics" — the
study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as the Chinese
through the Shi Jing, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, developed canons
of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance. More recently,
thinkers have struggled to find a definition that could encompass formal
differences as great as those between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Matsuo
Bashō's Oku no Hosomichi, as well as differences in context spanning Tanakh
religious poetry, love poetry, and rap.
Paul Valéry, drawn by himself.
Context can be critical to poetics and to the development of poetic genres and
forms. Poetry that records historic events in epics, such as Gilgamesh or
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, will necessarily be lengthy and narrative, while poetry
used for liturgical purposes (hymns, psalms, suras and hadiths) is likely to
have an inspirational tone, whereas elegy and tragedy are meant to evoke deep
emotional responses. Other contexts include Gregorian chants, formal or
diplomatic speech, political rhetoric and invective, light-hearted nursery and
nonsense rhymes, and even medical texts.
The Polish historian of aesthetics, W?adys?aw Tatarkiewicz, in a paper on "The
Concept of Poetry," traces the evolution of what is in fact two concepts of
poetry. Tatarkiewicz points out that the term is applied to two distinct things
that, as the poet Paul Valéry observes, "at a certain point find union. Poetry
[...] is an art based on language. But poetry also has a more general meaning
[...] that is difficult to define because it is less determinate: poetry
expresses a certain state of mind." ."
Western traditions
Aristotle.
Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the
quality of poetry. Notably, the existing fragments of Aristotle's Poetics
describe three genres of poetry — the epic, the comic, and the tragic — and
develop rules to distinguish the highest-quality poetry in each genre, based on
the underlying purposes of the genre. Later aestheticians identified three major
genres: epic poetry, lyric poetry and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and
tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry.
Aristotle's work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic
Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. Later poets and
aestheticians often distinguished poetry from, and defined it in opposition to,
prose, which was generally understood as writing with a proclivity to logical
explication and a linear narrative structure.
John Keats.
John Keats.
This does not imply that poetry is illogical or lacks narration, but rather that
poetry is an attempt to render the beautiful or sublime without the burden of
engaging the logical or narrative thought process. English Romantic poet John
Keats termed this escape from logic, "Negative Capability." This "romantic"
approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is
abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic. This approach remained
influential into the twentieth century.
During this period, there was also substantially more interaction among the
various poetic traditions, in part due to the spread of European colonialism and
the attendant rise in global trade. In addition to a boom in translation, during
the Romantic period numerous ancient works were rediscovered.
Twentieth-century disputes
Archibald Macleish.
Some 20th century literary theorists, relying less on the opposition of prose
and poetry, focused on the poet as simply one who creates using language, and
poetry as what the poet creates. The underlying concept of the poet as creator
is not uncommon, and some modernist poets essentially do not distinguish between
the creation of a poem with words, and creative acts in other media such as
carpentry. Yet other modernists challenge the very attempt to define poetry as
misguided, as when Archibald MacLeish concludes his paradoxical poem, "Ars
Poetica," with the lines: "A poem should not mean / but be."
Disputes over the definition of poetry, and over poetry's distinction from other
genres of literature, have been inextricably intertwined with the debate over
the role of poetic form. The rejection of traditional forms and structures for
poetry that began in the first half of the twentieth century coincided with a
questioning of the purpose and meaning of traditional definitions of poetry and
of distinctions between poetry and prose, particularly given examples of poetic
prose and prosaic "poetry". Numerous modernist poets have written in
non-traditional forms or in what traditionally would have been considered prose,
although their writing was generally infused with poetic diction and often with
rhythm and tone established by non-metrical means. While there was a substantial
formalist reaction within the modernist schools to the breakdown of structure,
this reaction focused as much on the development of new formal structures and
syntheses as on the revival of older forms and structures.
More recently, postmodernism has fully embraced MacLeish's concept and come to
regard boundaries between prose and poetry, and also among genres of poetry, as
having meaning only as cultural artifacts. Postmodernism goes beyond modernism's
emphasis on the creative role of the poet, to emphasize the role of the reader
of a text, and to highlight the complex cultural web within which a poem is
read. Today, throughout the world, poetry often incorporates poetic form and
diction from other cultures and from the past, further confounding attempts at
definition and classification that were once sensible within a tradition such as
the Western canon.
Basic elements
Prosody
Meter (poetry)
Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Rhythm and
meter, although closely related, should be distinguished. Meter is the
definitive pattern established for a verse (such as iambic pentameter), while
rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. Thus, the meter
of a line may be described as being "iambic", but a full description of the
rhythm would require noting where the language causes one to pause or accelerate
and how the meter interacts with other elements of the language. Prosody also
may be used more specifically to refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show
meter.
Rhythm
Timing (linguistics), tone (linguistics), and pitch accent
See also Parallelism, inflection, intonation, foot
The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across languages and between poetic
traditions. Languages are often described as having timing set primarily by
accents, syllables, or moras, depending on how rhythm is established, though a
language can be influenced by multiple approaches. Japanese is a mora-timed
language. Syllable-timed languages include Latin, Catalan, French and Spanish.
English, Russian and, generally, German are stress-timed languages. Varying
intonation also affects how rhythm is perceived. Languages also can rely on
either pitch, such as in Vedic or ancient Greek, or tone. Tonal languages
include Chinese, Vietnamese, Lithuanian, and most subsaharan languages.
Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables
into repeated patterns called feet within a line. In Modern English verse the
pattern of stresses primarily differentiate feet, so rhythm based on meter in
Modern English is most often founded on the pattern of stressed and unstressed
syllables (alone or elided). In the classical languages, on the other hand,
while the metrical units are similar, vowel length rather than stresses define
the meter. Old English poetry used a metrical pattern involving varied numbers
of syllables but a fixed number of strong stresses in each line.
Robinson Jeffers.
Robinson Jeffers.
The chief device of ancient Hebrew Biblical poetry, including many of the
psalms, was parallelism, a rhetorical structure in which successive lines
reflected each other in grammatical structure, sound structure, notional
content, or all three. Parallelism lent itself to antiphonal or
call-and-response performance, which could also be reinforced by intonation.
Thus, Biblical poetry relies much less on metrical feet to create rhythm, but
instead creates rhythm based on much larger sound units of lines, phrases and
sentences. Some classical poetry forms, such as Venpa of the Tamil language, had
rigid grammars (to the point that they could be expressed as a context-free
grammar) which ensured a rhythm. In Chinese poetry, tones as well as stresses
create rhythm. Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone,
rising tone, falling tone, and entering tone. Note that other classifications
may have as many as eight tones for Chinese and six for Vietnamese.
The formal patterns of meter used developed in Modern English verse to create
rhythm no longer dominate contemporary English poetry. In the case of free
verse, rhythm is often organized based on looser units of cadence than a regular
meter. Robinson Jeffers, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams are three
notable poets who reject the idea that regular accentual meter is critical to
English poetry. Jeffers experimented with sprung rhythm as an alternative to
accentual rhythm.
Meter
Scansion and Systems of scansion
Homer.
In the Western poetic tradition, meters are customarily grouped according to a
characteristic metrical foot and the number of feet per line. Thus, "iambic
pentameter" is a meter comprising five feet per line, in which the predominant
kind of foot is the "iamb." This metric system originated in ancient Greek
poetry, and was used by poets such as Pindar and Sappho, and by the great
tragedians of Athens. Similarly, "dactylic hexameter," comprises six feet per
line, of which the dominant kind of foot is the "dactyl." Dactylic hexameter was
the traditional meter of Greek epic poetry, the earliest extant examples of
which are the works of Homer and Hesiod.
Meter is often scanned based on the arrangement of "poetic feet" into lines. In
English, each foot usually includes one syllable with a stress and one or two
without a stress. In other languages, it may be a combination of the number of
syllables and the length of the vowel that determines how the foot is parsed,
where one syllable with a long vowel may be treated as the equivalent of two
syllables with short vowels. For example, in ancient Greek poetry, meter is
based solely on syllable duration rather than stress. In some languages, such as
English, stressed syllables are typically pronounced with greater volume,
greater length, and higher pitch, and are the basis for poetic meter. In ancient
Greek, these attributes were independent of each other; long vowels and
syllables including a vowel plus more than one consonant actually had longer
duration, approximately double that of a short vowel, while pitch and stress
(dictated by the accent) were not associated with duration and played no role in
the meter. Thus, a dactylic hexameter line could be envisioned as a musical
phrase with six measures, each of which contained either a half note followed by
two quarter notes (i.e. a long syllable followed by two short syllables), or two
half notes (i.e. two long syllables); thus, the substitution of two short
syllables for one long syllable resulted in a measure of the same length. Such
substitution in a stress language, such as English, would not result in the same
rhythmic regularity. In Anglo-Saxon meter, the unit on which lines are built is
a half-line containing two stresses rather than a foot. Scanning meter can often
show the basic or fundamental pattern underlying a verse, but does not show the
varying degrees of stress, as well as the differing pitches and lengths of
syllables.
As an example of how a line of meter is defined, in English-language iambic
pentameter, each line has five metrical feet, and each foot is an iamb, or an
unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. When a particular line is
scanned, there may be variations upon the basic pattern of the meter; for
example, the first foot of English iambic pentameters is quite often inverted,
meaning that the stress falls on the first syllable. The generally accepted
names for some of the most commonly used kinds of feet include:
One of Henry Holiday's illustrations to Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the
Snark, which is written predominantly in anapestic tetrameter: "In the midst of
the word he was trying to say / In the midst of his laughter and glee / He had
softly and suddenly vanished away / For the snark was a boojum, you see."
One of Henry Holiday's illustrations to Lewis Carroll's The Hunting of the
Snark, which is written predominantly in anapestic tetrameter: "In the midst of
the word he was trying to say / In the midst of his laughter and glee / He had
softly and suddenly vanished away / For the snark was a boojum, you see."
* spondee — two stressed syllables together
* iamb — unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable
* trochee — one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable
* dactyl — one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables
* anapest — two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable
* pyrrhic - two unstressed syllables together (rare, usually used to end
dactylic hexameter)
The number of metrical feet in a line are described in Greek terminology as
follows:
* dimeter — two feet
* trimeter — three feet
* tetrameter — four feet
* pentameter — five feet
* hexameter — six feet
* heptameter — seven feet
* octameter — eight feet
There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb
of four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed
syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from
some ancient Greek and Latin poetry. Languages which utilize vowel length or
intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter,
such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and
dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.
Each of these types of feet has a certain "feel," whether alone or in
combination with other feet. The iamb, for example, is the most natural form of
rhythm in the English language, and generally produces a subtle but stable
verse. The dactyl, on the other hand, almost gallops along. And, as readers of
The Night Before Christmas or Dr. Seuss realize, the anapest is perfect for a
light-hearted, comic feel.
There is debate over how useful a multiplicity of different "feet" is in
describing meter. For example, Robert Pinsky has argued that while dactyls are
important in classical verse, English dactylic verse uses dactyls very
irregularly and can be better described based on patterns of iambs and anapests,
feet which he considers natural to the language. Actual rhythm is significantly
more complex than the basic scanned meter described above, and many scholars
have sought to develop systems that would scan such complexity. Vladimir Nabokov
noted that overlaid on top of the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed
syllables in a line of verse was a separate pattern of accents resulting from
the natural pitch of the spoken words, and suggested that the term "scud" be
used to distinguish an unaccented stress from an accented stress.
Metrical patterns
Meter (poetry)
Different traditions and genres of poetry tend to use different meters, ranging
from the Shakespearian iambic pentameter and the Homerian dactylic hexameter to
the Anapestic tetrameter used in many nursery rhymes. However, a number of
variations to the established meter are common, both to provide emphasis or
attention to a given foot or line and to avoid boring repetition. For example,
the stress in a foot may be inverted, a caesura (or pause) may be added
(sometimes in place of a foot or stress), or the final foot in a line may be
given a feminine ending to soften it or be replaced by a spondee to emphasize it
and create a hard stop. Some patterns (such as iambic pentameter) tend to be
fairly regular, while other patterns, such as dactylic hexameter, tend to be
highly irregular. Regularity can vary between language. In addition, different
patterns often develop distinctively in different languages, so that, for
example, iambic tetrameter in Russian will generally reflect a regularity in the
use of accents to reinforce the meter, which does not occur or occurs to a much
lesser extent in English.
Alexander Pushkin.
Alexander Pushkin.
Some common metrical patterns, with notable examples of poets and poems who use
them, include:
* Iambic pentameter (John Milton, Paradise Lost )
* Dactylic hexameter (Homer, Iliad; Ovid, The Metamorphoses)
* Iambic tetrameter (Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
* Iambic tetrameter (Aleksandr Pushkin, Eugene Onegin)
* Trochaic octameter (Edgar Allan Poe, "The Raven")
* Anapestic tetrameter (Lewis Carroll, "The Hunting of the Snark"; Lord Byron,
Don Juan)
* Alexandrine, also known as iambic hexameter (Jean Racine, Phčdre)
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance
The Old English epic poem Beowulf is written in alliterative verse and in
paragraph form, not separated into lines or stanzas.
The Old English epic poem Beowulf is written in alliterative verse and in
paragraph form, not separated into lines or stanzas.
Rhyme, Alliterative verse, and Assonance
Rhyme, alliteration, assonance and consonance are ways of creating repetitive
patterns of sound. They may be used as an independent structural element in a
poem, to reinforce rhythmic patterns, or as an ornamental element.
Rhyme consists of identical ("hard-rhyme") or similar ("soft-rhyme") sounds
placed at the ends of lines or at predictable locations within lines ("internal
rhyme"). Languages vary in the richness of their rhyming structures; Italian,
for example, has a rich rhyming structure permitting maintenance of a limited
set of rhymes throughout a lengthy poem. The richness results from word endings
that follow regular forms. English, with its irregular word endings adopted from
other languages, is less rich in rhyme. The degree of richness of a language's
rhyming structures plays a substantial role in determining what poetic forms are
commonly used in that language.
Alliteration and assonance played a key role in structuring early Germanic,
Norse and Old English forms of poetry. The alliterative patterns of early
Germanic poetry interweave meter and alliteration as a key part of their
structure, so that the metrical pattern determines when the listener expects
instances of alliteration to occur. This can be compared to an ornamental use of
alliteration in most Modern European poetry, where alliterative patterns are not
formal or carried through full stanzas. Alliteration is particularly useful in
languages with less rich rhyming structures. Assonance, where the use of similar
vowel sounds within a word rather than similar sounds at the beginning or end of
a word, was widely used in skaldic poetry, but goes back to the Homeric epic.
Because verbs carry much of the pitch in the English language, assonance can
loosely evoke the tonal elements of Chinese poetry and so is useful in
translating Chinese poetry. Consonance occurs where a consonant sound is
repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at the front of a
word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less
useful as a structural element.
Rhyming schemes
Rhyme scheme
In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use
rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poet forms, such as
ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is
not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids
traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme.
Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the
influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Arabic language
poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in
the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas. Some rhyming schemes have
become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other
rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods.
Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as
the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme
schemes.
Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest Heaven; from Gustave Doré's
illustrations to the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto 31
Dante and Beatrice gaze upon the highest Heaven; from Gustave Doré's
illustrations to the Divine Comedy, Paradiso, Canto 31
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of
rhymes, so if the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each
other and the third line does not rhyme, the quatrain is said to have an
"a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme. This rhyme scheme is the one used, for example, in the
rubaiyat form. Similarly, an "a-b-b-a" quatrain (what is known as "enclosed
rhyme") is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet. Some types of more
complicated rhyming schemes have developed names of their own, separate from the
"a-b-c" convention, such as the ottava rima and terza rima. The types and use of
differing rhyming schemes is discussed further in the main article.
Ottava rima
The ottava rima is a poem with a stanza of eight lines with an alternating a-b
rhyming scheme for the first six lines followed by a closing couplet first used
by Boccaccio. This rhyming scheme was developed for heroic epics but has also
been used for mock-heroic poetry.
Dante and terza rima
Dante's Divine Comedy is written in terza rima, where each stanza has three
lines, with the first and third rhyming, and the second line rhyming with the
first and third lines of the next stanza (thus, a-b-a / b-c-b / c-d-c, et
cetera.) in a chain rhyme. The terza rima provides a flowing, progressive sense
to the poem, and used skillfully it can evoke a sense of motion, both forward
and backward. Terza rima is appropriately used in lengthy poems in languages
with rich rhyming schemes (such as Italian, with its many common word endings).
Poetic form
Poetic form is very much more flexible nowadays than ever before. Many modern
poets eschew recognisable structures or forms, and write in 'free verse'. But
poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form and some regard for basic
formal structures of poetry will be found in even the best free verse,
howevermuch it may appear to have been ignored. Similarly, in the best poetry
written in the classical style there will be departures from strict form for
emphasis or effect. Among the major structural elements often used in poetry are
the line, the stanza or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or
lines such as cantos. The broader visual presentation of words and calligraphy
can also be utilized. These basic units of poetic form are often combined into
larger structures, called poetic forms or poetic modes (see following section),
such as in the sonnet or haiku.
Lines and stanzas
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the
number of metrical feet, or may emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of
lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not
written in a formal metrical pattern. Lines can separate, compare or contrast
thoughts expressed in different units, or can highlight a change in tone. See
the article on line breaks for information about the division between lines.
Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the
number of lines included. Thus a collection of two lines is a couplet (or
distich), three lines a triplet (or tercet), four lines a quatrain, five lines a
quintain (or cinquain), six lines a sestet, and eight lines an octet. These
lines may or may not relate to each other by rhyme or rhythm. For example, a
couplet may be two lines with identical meters which rhyme or two lines held
together by a common meter alone. Stanzas often have related couplets or
triplets within them.
Alexander Blok's poem, "Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" ("Night, street, lamp,
drugstore"), on a wall in Leiden.
Alexander Blok's poem, "Noch, ulitsa, fonar, apteka" ("Night, street, lamp,
drugstore"), on a wall in Leiden.
Other poems may be organized into verse paragraphs, in which regular rhymes with
established rhythms are not used, but the poetic tone is instead established by
a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in paragraph
form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular
rhymes and rhythms were used.
In many forms of poetry, stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or
other structural elements of one stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas.
Examples of such interlocking stanzas include, for example, the ghazal and the
villanelle, where a refrain (or, in the case of the villanelle, refrains) is
established in the first stanza which then repeats in subsequent stanzas.
Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic
parts of a poem. For example, the strophe, antistrophe and epode of the ode form
are often separated into one or more stanzas. In such cases, or where structures
are meant to be highly formal, a stanza will usually form a complete thought,
consisting of full sentences and cohesive thoughts.
In some cases, particularly lengthier formal poetry such as some forms of epic
poetry, stanzas themselves are constructed according to strict rules and then
combined. In skaldic poetry, the dróttkv?tt stanza had eight lines, each having
three "lifts" produced with alliteration or assonance. In addition to two or
three alliterations, the odd numbered lines had partial rhyme of consonants with
dissimilar vowels, not necessarily at the beginning of the word; the even lines
contained internal rhyme in set syllables (not necessarily at the end of the
word). Each half-line had exactly six syllables, and each line ended in a
trochee. The arrangement of dróttkv?tts followed far less rigid rules than the
construction of the individual dróttkv?tts.
-
Qur'an Fragment, Sura 33: 73–74
Visual presentation
Visual poetry
Even before the advent of printing, the visual appearance of poetry often added
meaning or depth. Acrostic poems conveyed meanings in the initial letters of
lines or in letters at other specific places in a poem. In Arabic, Hebrew and
Chinese poetry, the visual presentation of finely calligraphed poems has played
an important part in the overall effect of many poems.
With the advent of printing, poets gained greater control over the mass-produced
visual presentations of their work. Visual elements have become an important
part of the poet's toolbox, and many poets have sought to use visual
presentation for a wide range of purposes. Some Modernist poetry takes this to
an extreme, with the placement of individual lines or groups of lines on the
page forming an integral part of the poem's composition, whether to complement
the poem's rhythm through visual caesuras of various lengths, or to create
juxtapositions so as to accentuate meaning, ambiguity or irony, or simply to
create an aesthetically pleasing form. In its most extreme form, this can lead
to concrete poetry or asemic writing.
Poetic diction
Illustration for the cover of Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems
(1862), by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Goblin Market used complex poetic diction in
nursery rhyme form: "We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their
fruits: / Who knows upon what soil they fed / Their hungry thirsty roots?"
Illustration for the cover of Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market and Other Poems
(1862), by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Goblin Market used complex poetic diction in
nursery rhyme form: "We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their
fruits: / Who knows upon what soil they fed / Their hungry thirsty roots?"
Poetic diction
Poetic diction treats of the manner in which language is used, and refers not
only to the sound but also to the underlying meaning and its interaction with
sound and form. Many languages and poetic forms have very specific poetic
dictions, to the point where distinct grammars and dialects are used
specifically for poetry.
Poetic diction can include rhetorical devices such as simile and metaphor, as
well as tones of voice, such as irony. Aristotle wrote in the Poetics that "the
greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." Since the rise of
Modernism, some poets have opted for a poetic diction that deemphasizes
rhetorical devices, attempting instead the direct presentation of things and
experiences and the exploration of tone. On the other hand, Surrealists have
pushed rhetorical devices to their limits, making frequent use of catachresis.
Allegorical stories are central to the poetic diction of many cultures, and were
prominent in the west during classical times, the late Middle Ages and the
Renaissance. Rather than being fully allegorical, however, a poem may contain
symbols or allusions that deepen the meaning or effect of its words without
constructing a full allegory.
Another strong element of poetic diction can be the use of vivid imagery for
effect. The juxtaposition of unexpected or impossible images is, for example, a
particularly strong element in surrealist poetry and haiku. Vivid images are
often, as well, endowed with symbolism.
Many poetic dictions use repetitive phrases for effect, either a short phrase
(such as Homer's "rosy-fingered dawn" or "the wine-dark sea") or a longer
refrain. Such repetition can add a somber tone to a poem, as in many odes, or
can be laced with irony as the context of the words changes. For example, in
Antony's famous eulogy of Caesar in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Antony's
repetition of the words, "For Brutus is an honorable man," moves from a sincere
tone to one that exudes irony.
Poetic forms
Specific poetic forms have been developed by many cultures. In more developed,
closed or "received" poetic forms, the rhyming scheme, meter and other elements
of a poem are based on sets of rules, ranging from the relatively loose rules
that govern the construction of an elegy to the highly formalized structure of
the ghazal or villanelle. Described below are some common forms of poetry widely
used across a number of languages. Additional forms of poetry may be found in
the discussions of poetry of particular cultures or periods and in the glossary.
Sonnets
Shakespeare.
Shakespeare.
Sonnet
Among the most common form of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which, by
the thirteenth century, was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme
scheme and logical structure. The conventions associated with the sonnet have
changed during its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms.
Traditionally, English poets use iambic pentameter when writing sonnets, with
the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets being especially notable. In the
Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrines are the most widely used
meters, although the Petrarchan sonnet has been used in Italy since the 14th
century. Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a
poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns
associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a
useful and dynamic form for many subjects. Shakespeare's sonnets are among the
most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of
English Verse.
Jintishi
Du Fu.
Shi (poetry)#Jintishi and Jintishi
The jintishi (近體詩) is a Chinese poetic form based on a series of set tonal
patterns using the four tones of the classical Chinese language in each couplet:
the level, rising, falling and entering tones. The basic form of the jintishi
has eight lines in four couplets, with parallelism between the lines in the
second and third couplets. The couplets with parallel lines contain contrasting
content but an identical grammatical relationship between words. Jintishi often
have a rich poetic diction, full of allusion, and can have a wide range of
subject, including history and politics. One of the masters of the form was Du
Fu, who wrote during the Tang Dynasty (8th century). There are several
variations on the basic form of the jintishi.
Sestina
The sestina has six stanzas, each comprising six unrhymed lines, in which the
words at the end of the first stanza’s lines reappear in a rolling pattern in
the other stanzas. The poem then ends with a three-line stanza in which the
words again appear, two on each line.
Villanelle
The Villanelle is a nineteen-line poem made up of five triplets with a closing
quatrain; the poem is characterized by having two refrains, initially used in
the first and third lines of the first stanza, and then alternately used at the
close of each subsequent stanza until the final quatrain, which is concluded by
the two refrains. The remaining lines of the poem have an a-b alternating rhyme.
The villanelle has been used regularly in the English language since the late
nineteenth century by such poets as Dylan Thomas, W.H. Auden, and Elizabeth
Bishop. It is a form that has gained increased use at a time when the use of
received forms of poetry has generally been declining.
Pantoum
The pantoum is a rare form of poetry similar to a villanelle. It is composed of
a series of quatrains; the second and fourth lines of each stanza are repeated
as the first and third lines of the next.
Tanka
Kakinomoto no Hitomaro.
Waka (poetry)#tanka and Tanka
The Tanka is a form of Japanese poetry, generally not possessing rhyme, with
five lines structured in a 5-7-5 7-7 patterns. The 5-7-5 phrase (the "upper
phrase") and the 7-7 phrase (the "lower phrase") generally show a shift in tone
and subject matter. Tanka were written as early as the Nara period by such poets
as Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, at a time when Japan was emerging from a period where
much of its poetry followed Chinese form. Tanka was originally the shorter form
of Japanese formal poetry, and was used more heavily to explore personal rather
than public themes. It thus had a more informal poetic diction. By the 13th
century, Tanka had become the dominant form of Japanese poetry, and it is still
widely written today.
Haiku
Haiku is a traditional and popular form of traditional Japanese poetry. Haiku as
it has evolved in the recent centuries is a 17-syllable verse consisting of
three metrical units of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. An example given below :
Without flowing wine
How to enjoy lovely
Cherry blossoms?
Ruba'i
Four lines of verse practised by Arabian and Persian poets. Omar Khayyam is
famours for his Rubaiyat. The most famous translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar
Khayyam from Persi into English was done by Edward Fitzgerald. An example is
given below:
They say the Lion and the Lizard keep
The Courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep:
And Bahram, that great Hunter--the Wild Ass
Stamps o'er his Head, and he lies fast asleep.
Sijo
A short musical lyric practised by Korean poets. They are usually written in
three lines. The lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46. There is a
pause in the middle of each line and so, in English, Sijo are sometimes printed
in six lines instead of three. An example is given below :
You ask how many friends I have? Water and stone, bamboo and pine.
The moon rising over the eastern hill is a joyful comrade.
Besides these five companions, what other pleasure should I ask?
Ode
Horace.
Ode
Odes were first developed by poets writing in ancient Greek, such as Pindar, and
Latin, such as Horace, and forms of odes appear in many of the cultures
influenced by the Greeks and Latins. The ode generally has three parts: a
strophe, an antistrophe, and an epode. The antistrophes of the ode possess
similar metrical structures and, depending on the tradition, similar rhyme
structures. In contrast, the epode is written with a different scheme and
structure. Odes have a formal poetic diction, and generally deal with a serious
subject. The strophe and antistrophe look at the subject from different, often
conflicting, perspectives, with the epode moving to a higher level to either
view or resolve the underlying issues. Odes are often intended to be recited or
sung by two choruses (or individuals), with the first reciting the strophe, the
second the antistrophe, and both together the epode. Over time, differing forms
for odes have developed with considerable variations in form and structure, but
generally showing the original influence of the Pindaric or Horatian ode. One
non-Western form which resembles the ode is the qasida in Persian poetry.
Ghazal
The ghazal (Persian/Urdu/Arabic: ???) is a form of poetry common in Arabic,
Persian, Urdu and Bengali poetry. In classic form, the ghazal has from five to
fifteen rhyming couplets that share a refrain at the end of the second line
(which need be of only a few syllables). Each line has an identical meter, and
there is a set pattern of rhymes in the first couplet and among the refrains.
Each couplet forms a complete thought and stands alone, and the overall ghazal
often reflects on a theme of unattainable love or divinity. The last couplet
generally includes the signature of the author.
As with other forms with a long history in many languages, many variations have
been developed, including forms with a quasi-musical poetic diction in Urdu.
Ghazals have a classical affinity with Sufism, and a number of major Sufi
religious works are written in ghazal form. The relatively steady meter and the
use of the refrain produce an incantatory effect, which complements Sufi
mystical themes well. Among the masters of the form is Rumi, a Persian poet who
lived in Turkey.
Acrostic
A poem in which the first letters of the lines, when read downward, form a word,
phrase, or sentence.
Cinquain
A poem that has five lines with two, four, six, eight, and two syllables,
respectively.
Concrete
Concrete poetry
A poem that uses typeface, word arrangement, spacing, special characters, and
color to dramatize the words’ meaning by the way they look.
Free verse
Poetry that is based on the irregular rhythmic cadence or the recurrence, with
variations, of phrases, images, and syntactical patterns rather than the
conventional use of meter.
Poetic genres
In addition to specific forms of poems, poetry is often thought of in terms of
different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or
classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader
literary characteristics. Some commentators view genres as natural forms of
literature. Others view the study of genres as the study of how different works
relate and refer to other works.
Epic poems are one commonly identified genre, often defined as lengthy poems
concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the culture of the time.
Lyric poetry, which tends to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative, is another
commonly identified genre. Some commentators may organize bodies of poetry into
further subgenres, and individual poems may be seen as a part of many different
genres. In many cases, poetic genres show common features as a result of a
common tradition, even across cultures. Thus, Greek lyric poetry influenced the
genre's development from India to Europe.
Described below are some common genres, but the classification of genres, the
description of their characteristics, and even the reasons for undertaking a
classification into genres can take many forms.
Narrative poetry
Chaucer.
Narrative poetry
Narrative poetry is a genre of poetry that tells a story. Broadly it subsumes
epic poetry, but the term "narrative poetry" is often reserved for smaller
works, generally with more direct appeal than the epic to human interest.
Narrative poetry may be the oldest genre of poetry. Many scholars of Homer have
concluded that his Iliad and Odyssey were composed from compilations of shorter
narrative poems that related individual episodes and were more suitable for an
evening's entertainment. Much narrative poetry — such as Scots and English
ballads, and Baltic and Slavic heroic poems — is performance poetry with roots
in a preliterate oral tradition. It has been speculated that some features that
distinguish poetry from prose, such as meter, alliteration and kennings, once
served as memory aids for bards who recited traditional tales.
Notable narrative poets have included Ovid, Dante, Chaucer, William Langland,
Luís de Cam?es, Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Robert Burns, Adam Mickiewicz,
Alexander Pushkin, Edgar Allan Poe and Alfred Tennyson.
Epic poetry
Valmiki.
Valmiki.
Epic poetry
Epic poetry is a genre of poetry, and a major form of narrative literature. It
recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or
mythological person or group of persons. Western epic poems include Homer's
Iliad and Odyssey, Vergil's Aeneid, the Nibelungenlied and Luís de Cam?es' Os
Lusíadas. Eastern examples are the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mahabharata, Valmiki's
Ramayana, Ferdowsi's Shahnama, and the Epic of King Gesar.
The composition of epic poetry, and of long poems generally, became uncommon in
the west after the early 20th century, while the meaning of the term "epic"
evolved to refer also to prose writings, films and similar works that are
characterized by great length, multiple settings, large numbers of characters,
or long span of time involved.
Dramatic poetry
Goethe.
Verse drama and dramatic verse, Sanskrit drama, Chinese Opera, and Noh
Dramatic poetry is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in
varying and sometimes related forms in many cultures. Greek tragedy, written in
verse, widely influenced the development of both Western and Sanskrit drama,
while dramatic verse in East Asia developed out of Chinese Opera and includes
the Noh form in Japan.
Practical reasons to write drama in verse include ease of memorization and
musical accompaniment. In the latter half of the 20th century, verse drama fell
almost completely out of favor with English-language dramatists. Christopher Fry
and T. S. Eliot may have been its last practitioners in that language.
The best-known practitioners of this genre include Aeschylus, Sophocles, Gil
Vicente, Jan Kochanowski and Shakespeare.
Satirical poetry
Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The punch of an insult delivered in
verse can be many times more powerful and memorable than that of the same
insult, spoken or written in prose. The Greeks and Romans had a strong tradition
of satirical poetry, often written for political purposes. A notable example is
the Roman Martial's epigrams, whose insults stung the entire spectrum of
society.
John Dryden.
John Dryden.
Bocage.
The same is true of the English satirical tradition. Embroiled in the feverish
politics of the time and stung by an attack on him by his former friend, Thomas
Shadwell (a Whig), John Dryden (a Tory), the first Poet Laureate, produced in
1682 Mac Flecknoe, one of the greatest pieces of sustained invective in the
English language, subtitled "A Satire on the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S." In
this, the late, notably mediocre poet, Richard Flecknoe, was imagined to be
contemplating who should succeed him as ruler "of all the realms of Nonsense
absolute" to "reign and wage immortal war on wit."
Another exemplar of English satirical poetry was Alexander Pope, who famously
chided critics in his Essay on Criticism (1709).
Dryden and Pope were writers of epic poetry, and their satirical style was
accordingly epic; but there is no prescribed form for satirical poetry.
The greatest satirical poets outside England include Poland's Ignacy Krasicki
and Portugal's Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, commonly known as Bocage.
Lyric poetry
Christine de Pizan.
Lyric poetry
Lyric poetry is a genre that, unlike epic poetry and dramatic poetry, does not
attempt to tell a story but instead is of a more personal nature. Rather than
depicting characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of
mind, and perceptions. While the genre's name, derived from "lyre," implies that
it is intended to be sung, much lyric poetry is meant purely for reading.
Though lyric poetry has long celebrated love, many courtly-love poets also wrote
lyric poems about war and peace, nature and nostalgia, grief and loss. Notable
among these are the 15th century French lyric poets, Christine de Pizan and
Charles, Duke of Orléans. Spiritual and religious themes were addressed by such
medieval lyric poets as St. John of the Cross and Teresa of ávila. The tradition
of lyric poetry based on spiritual experience was continued by later poets such
as John Donne, Gerard Manley Hopkins and T. S. Eliot.
Although the most popular form for western lyric poetry to take may be the
14-line sonnet, as practiced by Petrarch and Shakespeare, lyric poetry shows a
bewildering variety of forms, including increasingly, in the 20th century,
unrhymed ones. This the most common type of poetry, as it deals intricately with
the author's own emotions and views. Due to this fact, lyric poems of the
First-person narrative are often accused of navel-gazing, and may be scorned by
other, less self-centered, poets.
Verse fable
Ignacy Krasicki.
Fable
The fable is an ancient and near-ubiquitous literary genre, often (though not
invariably) set in verse form. It is a brief, succinct story that features
anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that
illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral"). Verse fables have used a variety of meter
and rhyme patterns; Ignacy Krasicki, for example, in his Fables and Parables,
used 13-syllable lines in rhyming couplets.
Notable verse fabulists have included Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), Vishnu Sarma
(ca. 200 BCE), Phaedrus (15 BCE–50 CE), Marie de France (12th century), Biernat
of Lublin (1465?–after 1529), Jean de La Fontaine (1621–95), Ignacy Krasicki
(1735–1801), Ivan Krylov (1769–1844) and Ambrose Bierce (1842–1914). All of
Aesop's translators and successors have owed a fundamental debt to that
semi-legendary fabulist.
Prose poetry
Charles Baudelaire, by Gustave Courbet.
Prose poetry
Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that demonstrates attributes of both prose and
poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the micro-story (aka the "short short
story," "flash fiction"). Most critics argue that it qualifies as poetry because
of its conciseness, use of metaphor, and special attention to language.
While some examples of earlier prose strike modern readers as poetic, prose
poetry is commonly regarded as having originated in 19th-century France, where
its practitioners included Aloysius Bertrand, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud
and Stéphane Mallarmé.
The genre has subsequently found notable exemplars:
* English: Oscar Wilde, T. S. Eliot, Gertrude Stein, Sherwood Anderson, Allen
Ginsberg, Seamus Heaney, Russell Edson, Charles Simic, Robert Bly, James Wright
* French: Francis Ponge
* Italian: Eugenio Montale, Salvatore Quasimodo, Giuseppe Ungaretti, Umberto
Saba
* Polish: Boles?aw Prus
* Portuguese: Fernando Pessoa, Mário Cesariny, Mário De Sá-Carneiro, Eugénio de
Andrade, Al Berto, Alexandre O'Neill, José Saramago, António Lobo Antunes
* Spanish: Octavio Paz, ángel Crespo
Since the late 1980s especially, prose poetry has gained increasing popularity,
with journals devoted solely to that genre.
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